Abstract: Martin Buber’s relational philosophy has a lot in common with Confucius’s ren learning. Approaching Confucius’s ren with relational philosophy sheds light on the long-obscured relational structure of human Dasein. Confucius’s ren learning has three dimensions: “self—self,” “self—other,” and “self—Heaven and Earth.” The three dimensions are balanced and form an organic whole, a complete system determining the meaning and values of the human qua human. Over two thousand years, Confucian philosophy developed along these three dimensions. Zhu Xi was the first synthesizer to push ren learning to new heights in ancient China. Chen Lai’s ontology of ren represents a new development in ren learning by modern scholars.
Keywords: Martin Buber, Confucius’s ren learning, relational philosophy, ontology of ren,three dimensions in one
Martin Buber (1878—1965) was a famous German—Jewish philosopher. He is often regarded as a forerunner of existentialism and one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century.1 Buber is best known for his relational philosophy, romantic theology, and philosophy of dialogue. His thought has a lot in common with Confucius’s ren 仁, which has been variously translated as benevolence, humanity, and human-heartedness. These similarities have drawn researchers’ attention, but no serious study into this subject has yet appeared.
Martin Buber’s Relational Ontology [Refer to page 34 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Martin Buber’s philosophy finds its most concentrated expression in Ich und Du [I and Thou]. In this book, Buber proposes a relational ontology which is theological and in contradistinction to the Western metaphysical tradition. According to Buber, that which assumes the ontological status is neither material nor spiritual, neither a subject nor an object; what assumes the ontological status is the relation between subject and object. He distinguishes between two primary, almost primordial, words, namely “I—It” and “I—Thou,”which mean respectively the I—It relation and the I—Thou relation. These two kinds of relations disclose two fundamental ways of the subject relating to the object, the I—It relation establishing “the world of experience” (the world to be used) and the I—Thou relation establishing “the world of relation” (the world to be met). “I—It” is a typical subject-centered relation, and “I—Thou” is more authentic and fundamental.
The brilliance of Buber’s philosophy lies in breaking the conventional thought pattern of subject—object dichotomy, replacing entity, a concept originating from Aristotle, with relation, and breaking through the Western metaphysical tradition that ever since Descartes has been characterized by the subject—object dichotomy. Buber contends that the subject established by Descartes’s “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) is an illusion, and that the existence of the self is actually dependent on the interaction and mutual inf l uence between“I” and “Thou,” so compared with the “cogito,” this relation is of primary importance.
Buber regards the I—Thou relation as the most basic mode of existence, thus humanizing inanimate objects and holding a position similar to Chinese philosophy. For this reason,Zhang Shiying 张世英 asserted that the I—Thou relation is essentially “an intersubjective attitude of love and reciprocity, or, to borrow the words of Chinese philosophy, an attitude of ‘treating all people as my brothers and all things as my kind.’”2 Zhang Shiying 张世英, “Life and the World Are Twofold: Martin Buber’s I and Thou” [人生与世界的两重性——布伯《我与你》], Journal of Renmin University of China [中国人民大学学报], no. 3 (2002): 28. In short, the important implication Buber’s philosophy has for Confucius’srenlearning is that human Dasein is relational. This relational structure opens up opportunities for constructive dialogue between Buber and Confucianism. In fact, Confucius’s ren learning approaches people and the world from the perspective of relationality.
The Three Dimensions of Confucius’s RenLearning[36]
Ren is at the core of Confucius’s thought.3 Others believe li, or ritual propriety, is at the center of Confucius’s thought. A leading exponent of this view is Herbert Fingarette. For details, see Confucius: The Secular as Sacred (New York: Harper and Row, 1972). Both renandliare central concepts. Ren is central to Confucius’s moral philosophy, and mainly deals with inner sageliness;li plays a central role in the establishment of ethical and political order, and mainly deals with outer kingliness. However,inner sageliness and outer kingliness overlap in what they denote, and are as inseparable as the two sides of a coin.Comparatively speaking, ren is the internal realization of social ethics, as Confucius says, “Ren is to restrain oneself and return to ritual propriety,” so ren is more fundamental than li.Confucius’sren learning includes three dimensions:“self—self,” “self—other,” and “self—Heaven and Earth.” Self—self addresses the relation between humanity and itself, self—other addresses the relation between the self and others, and self—Heaven and Earth addresses the relation between humanity and the cosmos.
The ‘Self-Self’ Dimension [36]
The self—self dimension of ren concerns the question of the human mind, or rather that of the human body and mind. In this respect, Confucius’s discussions of ren chief l y revolve around four categories: feeling, will, value, and moral praxis.
First,ren is rooted in feeling, and includes people’s real feelings and emotions.Confucius says, “What does a person devoid of ren have to do with ritual propriety? What does a person devoid of ren have to do with music?” (Analects, 3:3).4 The English translations of the Analects are based on Ni Peimin’s version, with slight modifications. Sacrificial ceremonies,rites and music are formal processes on the surface; however, the foundation of these institutions is humanity’s inner feelings. According to Confucius, without humanity’s real moral feelings, the processes of rites and music are formalized and hence meaningless. As an emotion, ren is, in essence, love, specifically love toward others instead of oneself and love manifested in the daily functioning of human relations. In this connection, Confucius instructs, “My young fellows: when at home, be filial, and when going out, be respectful to elders. Be earnest and trustworthy, love the multitude broadly, and seek close association with those who are ren” (1:6). It can be seen that Confucius’s ren learning always starts from people’s natural feelings and harmonizes with the ethical rules of society, constituting a unity of internal feelings and external ethics. So from the very beginning, ren is related to the living conditions of human Dasein; it is not merely an abstract concept formulated by reason.
Second,ren inherently entails the human will. Concerning this point, there are three implications. To begin with, ren arises from the human will. Confucius says, “I want to be ren,and there comes ren” (7:30). A person’s wanting to be ren is a prerequisite for the coming of ren,so it can be said that ren is motivated by a desire, by the human will. Confucius also says, “Having aspired after ren, you will be free from mean conduct” (4:4). If people truly aspire after ren, they can eliminate evil in themselves. People’s aspiration or will is still the crux of the matter, so the will is an inherent part ofren. Furthermore, ren is a moral will. As a moral will, ren lays down the emotional basis for making reasonable choices. To stress the will of ren, Confucius says, “The three armies may be deprived of their commander, but even a common man cannot be deprived of his will” (9:26); “Superior men do not, even for the space of a single meal, go against ren. In moments of haste, they are with it. In times of distress, they are with it” (4:5). As is demonstrated by the quotes above, ren as a moral will is thorough and absolute, leaving no room for moral relativism. Finally, as a moral will, ren is completely free. Confucius does not speak explicitly of free will, but some of his remarks seem to imply this idea. For example, “To be ren is dependent on oneself. How can it be dependent on others?” (12:1). An action that is ren is based on a person’s free choice, independent of other people and external factors.
囊性畸胎瘤主要由毛发、牙齿、骨骼、油脂等组织构成，不同组织，声阻抗也有所不同，因此超声可见多种声像图特征，包括面团征、囊肿征、瀑布征、脂液分层征等，所以，超声诊断囊性畸胎瘤的准确率较高。
When positioning yourself, be respectful; when conducting business, be reverent; in treating others, be wholeheartedly devoted. (13:19)
Confucius combines the awe of the transcendent Heaven and the sense of moral law within, thus transforming religiousness into inherent morality. Humanity is endowed with inherent goodness by Heaven, and Heaven descends to become part of human nature. Heaven is not only to be worshiped by people and the source of all value, but is also at the same time accessible to people. Following their inherent goodness and engaging in ceaseless moral cultivation, people can reach up to the state of Heaven internally. This is called “to study that which is below in order to reach that which is above.” Basically, this is Confucius’s idea of “inherent nature and the Way of Heaven.”8 Guo Qiyong 郭齐勇, The Spirit of Confucianism [中国儒学之精神] (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2009), 254.
As the highest standard of human action, ren is the culmination and condensed form of human reason. For this, it is argued that Confucius’s renlearning,Turns propriety and rituals from external norms and constraints into internal requirements of humanity, elevates originally rigid rules and regulations into selfconscious ideas of life, and transforms something religious and mysterious into the constancy of human feelings in everyday life, unifying ethical rules and psychological desires into an organic whole.5 Li Zehou 李泽厚, History of Ancient Chinese Thought [中国古代思想史论] (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company,2008), 15.
新规则增加“纸质归档文件的修整”部分，要求对破损的归档文件予以修复，但未阐述具体的修复方式，“DA/T 25-2000 档案修裱技术规范”对档案修裱的设备和工具、修裱材料、修裱前期准备、修裱技术、修裱后的装订及修裱质量等内容均作了详细阐述，对于纸质文件的修整具有重要的指导借鉴意义，故作为规范性引用文件。
Although the ren of rational nature is acquired, it plays a very significant role.
Fourth,ren entails praxis. Confucius speaks of many ways to put ren into practice,for example,
特品屋在出售纪念品的时候，当游客购满一定数额的纪念品时，会主动赠送一个CCO的手作，通常是由游客自己挑选一个一定价格方位内的纪念品。在日常的时候，还会有打包销售，就是讲两件或者几件纪念品打包成一套，然后以几折的价格销售出去。
The self—Heaven and Earth dimension of ren also has a transcendent and religious quality. The sublimity of ren lies in its being a constant reminder of the ontological reality that makes humanity truly human. “It goes on just like this, not ceasing day or night” (9:17).This going-on symbolizes the steadfastness of Confucianism in seeking the meaning of life and pursuing ultimate concerns. To a certain extent, this explains how Confucianism plays the role of religion. In sum, appreciating the harmony of humanity and nature, of humanity and Heaven, and of humanity and the cosmos, seeking to achieve the unity of Heaven and humanity, these are the basic attitudes Confucianism holds toward the external world.
Wholehearted devotion and reciprocity. (4:15)
Third,ren embodies the value of life. In the view of Confucius, ren results from rational choice and represents the value of life, so it is higher than life. Confucius says, “People with lofty ideals will never seek to live at the expense of ren. Rather, they might sacrifice their lives to accomplish ren” (15:9). Confucius thinks that as the highest value, ren cannot be compromised. He says,
To aspire after the Way, hold firm to virtue, lean upon ren, and wander in the arts. (7:6)
Remarks like these are many in the Analects, and they can be summarized into one phrase:“restrain oneself and return to ritual propriety.” When it comes to Neo-Confucianism,the praxis of ren means gongfu, or spending time and effort in cultivating oneself. The commitment to gongfu not only paves the way to achieving ren but also constitutes the goal of ren in and of itself. With one’s gongfu, there comes a higher sphere of life. Confucius does not speak explicitly of this higher life, but merely refers to a “joy of Confucius and Yan Hui.”Confucius says, “With only coarse food to eat, plain water to drink, and my bended arms for a pillow, joy can be found in the midst of these. Wealth and prestige acquired in inappropriate ways are no more than floating clouds to me” (7:16). This Confucian joy originally only meant being contented with poverty and finding joy in the Way, but with the Neo-Confucian interpretation, it was usually understood as a lofty spiritual plane. In sum, ren is not merely some abstract value above people’s quotidian existence; it is attainable by their constant selfcultivation in performing common tasks. Understood from the perspective of gongfu, an important function of ren is to unite the physical a nd the metaphysical realms. In the Western philosophical tradition, the physical a nd the metaphysical are usually separated; Chinese philosophy however strives for their fusion, as in the claim that “it is not divorced from daily regular activity, yet it goes directly to that which was before the heavens.”6 Wang Shouren 王守仁, “Departure from Disc iples” [别诸生], in vol. 20 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王阳明全集], eds. Wu Guang 吴光 et al. (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2011), 872. The unique perspective of gongfu is what allows Chinese philosophy to be both physical and metaphysical.
The ‘Self-Other’ Dimension [38]
The self—other dimension of ren mainly deals with the relation between self and others,and between human beings and society. Confucius approached this issue mainly from the perspective of social morality. According to Confucius, ren is the general principle addressing all kinds of social relations. Ethically, ren means loving people, as in, “A benevolent (ren) man loves people” (Mencius, 4B:28), and “love the multitude broadly,and seek close association with those who are ren” (Analects, 1:6). A sense of responsibility for oneself naturally leads to a sense of responsibility for others. Confucius believed that all kinds of social norms conforming to ren can be developed from the principle of loving people; therefore, the ideal society is one of love and benevolence. It should be noted that Confucius’s love was graded love, which is different from the Neo-Confucian love that regarded “the myriad things as one body.” In the society envisioned by Confucius, people love each other and live together harmoniously. Human society is a community within which members, though vastly different from each other, are interconnected and have a shared future.7 Ma Jun 马俊, “Exploring the Four Essentials of Mencius’s Kingl y Way Governance and Their Universal Significance”[孟子 王道政治四要素及其普世意义初探], Journal of Zhengzhou University of Light Industry (Social Science Edition) [郑州轻工业学院学报（社会科学版）], no. 2 (2019): 26—34. In addition, Confucius applied the principle of ren to his political theory.However, he mainly talked about ren in terms of inner sageliness; as for outer kingliness,Confucius talked a lot about dezheng 德政 or virtuous government, but did not propose the concept of renzheng 仁政 or benevolent government.
The ‘Self-Heaven and Earth’ Dimension [38]
The “self—Heaven and Earth” dimension of ren mainly deals with the relation between humanity and nature, or between humanity and the cosmos. This part is often viewed as the Confucian ontology and cosmology. Ontologically, ren as the substance pertains to the question of “inherent nature and the Way of Heaven” in Confucian philosophy. Although Confucius was the first to speak of the philosophy of mind and inherent nature, his remarks are few. There is only one sentence directly related to the topic, which says: “By nature,humans are similar; through habitual conduct, they diverge widely” (17:2), words that are open to various interpretations. Confucius’s disciple Zigong 子贡 (520—456 BCE) said,“The Master’s manifestation of culture is something that may be heard. His discourses about the inherent nature [of human beings or things] and the Way of Heaven, however,are things that cannot be heard” (5:13). Although Confucius’s words on inherent nature and the Way of Heaven are meager and fragmentary, they point to the metaphysical realm in Confucianism. It was on this basis that later generations of Confucians gave ren an ontological development. In Neo-Confucianism, the Way of ren means not only ethical guidance for the individual as well as groups of individuals, but also the fundamental principle ensuring that all things go smoothly in the world. It is both the basic moral law and the life-giving principle of transformation and nourishment. Neo-Confucians generally believed that there is a certain consistency between the Way of Heaven and human nature.That is, human nature is uplifted to become a kind of moral reason that is also the Way of Heaven; conversely, the Way of Heaven descends to become part of human nature before being manifested in human conduct as the Way of humanity. In this regard, Guo Qiyong郭齐勇 said,
I have never seen a person who loves ren, or one who loathes the contrary to it. One who loves ren places nothing above it. One who loathes the contrary to it would never let anything contrary to it attach to his person. Is anyone able, for a single day, to make efforts at ren? I have never seen a person whose strength would be insufficient. There might be such people, but I have yet to see any. (4:6)
2016年1月至2017年2月,我们对66例AD患者实施分阶段延伸护理干预,取得满意效果。现报告如下。
本文取正常应用与恶意应用各1 500个作为训练集，另取250个作为测试集，其中恶意应用来自公开的恶意软件库VirusShare，正常应用爬取自GooglePlay商店，基本涵盖了所有应用类别。
In terms of the three dimensions above, ren can be seen as centered on humanity. In pre-Qin classics such as the Book of Rites and the Mencius, there is a saying: “To be ren is to be human (仁者，人也).” This is probably an explanation of the original meaning of the word ren. At the same time, Confucius approaches the issues of body and mind, of self and others, and of humans and the world mainly from the perspective of relationality, so Confucius’s ren learning can be deemed a relational philosophy. The three dimensions of Confucius’s ren are of great importance. They give a sketch of the basic orientation and theoretical model of the spirit of Chinese culture, and establish the ultimate concern of Eastern civilization as distinct from that of Western civilization. The Neo-Confucian theory of inherent nature and principle in the Song (960—1279) and Ming (1368—1644) dynasties did not go beyond these three dimensions.
The History of Ren Learning and Its Development in Modern Times [39]
Scholars throughout the ages have made creative interpretations of Confucius’s account ofren, and thanks to its quality of theoretical openness, it was able to absorb useful elements from foreign cultures and attain new developments. Along the three dimensions pioneered by Confucius, ren learning evolved by its own internal logic into more developed forms.
转喻模式将范畴内突出的属性投射到相近的或相关联的不同认识域，也是导致一词多义现象的重要手段。在空间概念范畴内，at最突出的属性是在某一空间上，空间大小以自我体验为参照点。如果该空间超出了人们的体验范畴，如大型建筑物或大学，也理解为空间概念中一点，如at Oxford，arrive at。同理如果以人类的历史长河为参照点，一个晚上，圣诞节期间，甚至一年这样的时间段在认知层面上仍理解为时间上的一点，如at night；at weekend；at 55；at Christmas等等。
First, there is development in the self—self dimension. Confucius’s approach to ren in terms of feeling has been inherited and expanded. In this respect, Mencius played a crucial role, with his “feeling of commiseration” or “mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others” as the basic principle of human nature. Pre-Qin Confucianism not only granted legitimacy to people’s natural feelings, but also established feelings as the foundation for the transcendence of humanity and all kinds of rational laws and regulations. However,later Confucianism did not follow this approach. In the Song and Ming dynasties, Neo-Confucianism advocated “preserving heavenly principle and extinguishing human desires,” with human feeling utterly marginalized in morality. Undoubtedly, this led to a brutal suppression of innate human characteristics. Unreasonable as it was as a solution,this sadistic tendency did not last long, and the suppressed emotions fervently sought an outlet. It was superseded by Wang Yangming’s 王阳明 (1472—1528) followers (especially the Taizhou school), who advocated the liberation of human nature and promoted human feeling to unparalleled heights of importance. In modern times, Chinese philosophers have attached more importance to feelings. Both Kang Youwei 康有为 (1858—1927) and Tan Sitong 谭嗣同 (1865—1898) spoke highly of feelings, while Li Zehou 李泽厚 was the first to make emotion the ontological substance in his philosophy.
Second, the self—other dimension developed chiefly along the lines of ethics and politics. The development in ethics has been more significant than that in politics. Mencius and Xunzi combined the moral ideal of ren with Confucius’s ideas of loving people and rule by virtue. They proposed theories of benevolent government, people as the basis, and the kingly Way, laying the foundation for Confucian political theory and advancing Confucius’sren learning along the path of outer kingliness. After Mencius and Xunzi, there were few breakthroughs. In the New Culture Movement (1919), Confucianism was denounced and rejected, and after that Contemporary New Confucians ref l ected critically upon the decline of Confucianism and put forward insightful theories such as the “self-negation of moral knowing,” “Confucian socialism,” “Confucian constitution,” and the “all-under-Heaven system,” thus enhancing the development of this dimension.
Third, the self—Heaven and Earth dimension ofren developed from universal values,through the moral subject, to the substance of the cosmos. Zhang Zai 张载 (1020—1077)in his Western Inscription [西铭] said, “What fills the space between Heaven and Earth, I consider as my body; what directs Heaven and Earth, I consider as my inherent nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all creatures are my companions.”9 Zhang Zai 张载, vol. 17 of Correcting Youthful Ignorance [正蒙], in Works of Zhang Zai [张载集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1978), 62. Here, Mozi’s thought of universal love is incorporated into the Confucian ren, and the previous notion of graded love is replaced by the highest form of thought that “ren means regarding Heaven,Earth, and the myriad things as one body.”10 Cheng Yi 程颐 and Cheng Hao 程颢, part 1 of vol. 2 in Surviving Books of the Cheng Brothers [河南程氏遗书], in Works of the Cheng Brothers [二程集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981), 15. Thus the person who is ren lives on a lofty plane is equal with Heaven and Earth, and assists in the transformation and nourishment of the world. Cheng Hao 程颢 (1032—1085) was the first to speak of renas substance,11 Chen Lai 陈来, An Ontology of Ren Learning [仁学本体论] (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2014), 169. and to clarify the way to realize ren through sincerity and reverence. His theory that “ren means becoming an integral whole with things”12 Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao, Surviving Books of the Cheng Brothers, 16. established the unity of all things as the core metaphysical proposition in Confucianism. Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130—1200) interpreted ren as the creation of life, and considered ren to be “the heart of Heaven and Earth in ceaseless creation.”13 Li Jingde 黎靖德, ed., Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi [朱子语类], vol. 53 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1988), 1298. As a consequence, ren became the living, unrestrained, and all-inclusive substance of the cosmos, transcending abstract moral categories and taking on cosmogonic significance, establishing the unique renlearning view of the cosmos: humans and Heaven are one and the same body.
采用上述开发模型，既实现了视图层、控制层与模型层的分离，又实现了业务逻辑层与持久层的分离。这样无论前端如何变化，模型层只需很少的改动，并且数据库的变化也不会对前端有所影响，大大提高了系统的可复用性。不同层之间耦合度小，有利于团队成员并行工作，大大提高了开发效率。
Generally speaking, ren learning found its most important development in Zhu Xi.Since the dawn of the modern age, many scholars have tried to explore the theoretical implications of ren, seeing it as the most important Eastern wisdom to rebuild the cultural tradition, to resolve the loss of value in modernity, and even to resolve the conflicts of civilizations and religions in the world. From Kang Youwei’s conception of “ren-substance,”Tang Junyi’s 唐君毅 (1909—1978) idea of “one root,” Mou Zhongjian’s 牟钟鉴 new ren learning, to Chen Lai’s 陈来 recent ontology of ren learning, the concept of ren has become central to the construction of Chinese philosophy in modern times. In particular, Chen Lai has traced the development of ren learning, and constructed an ontology of renlearning, a philosophical system including cosmology, ontology, ethics and other fields, thereby givingren learning a mature and complete form.
Bibliography of Cited Translations
Ni, Peimin, trans. Understanding the Analects of Confucius: A New Translation of Lunyu with Annotations. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2017.
水利部发展研究中心主任杨得瑞在中欧水资源管理对话会上做主旨发言，从发生在2011年、对于中国水利改革发展具有里程碑意义的两件大事谈起，分水利改革发展的政策与实践两个方面向与会者介绍了中国的情况。他说，中国水利专家正与欧盟专家合作开展在水资源管理政策和法规方面的对比研究，并建议中欧双方在水交流平台的框架下，进一步加强水政策和水法律方面的交流合作，分享经验，共同探寻“治水良策”。
❋ Ma Jun is a doctoral student of philosophy at Renmin University of China. E-mail: knowingyourself@163.com
❋ Hou Jian is a teacher in the School of Foreign Languages at Henan University.
Translated by Hou Jian❋
标签：本体论论文; 纪念品论文; 中欧论文; 论文论文; 空间论文; 哲学论文; 宗教论文; 哲学理论论文; 哲学基本问题论文; 《孔学堂》2019年第2期论文; 中国人民大学哲学院论文; School of Foreign Languages at Henan University论文;