A Study of Confucius’s Ren Learning from the Perspective of Martin Buber’s Relational Ontology
Ma Jun❋
Abstract: Martin Buber’s relational philosophy has a lot in common with Confucius’s ren learning. Approaching Confucius’s ren with relational philosophy sheds light on the long-obscured relational structure of human Dasein. Confucius’s ren learning has three dimensions: “self—self,” “self—other,” and “self—Heaven and Earth.” The three dimensions are balanced and form an organic whole, a complete system determining the meaning and values of the human qua human. Over two thousand years, Confucian philosophy developed along these three dimensions. Zhu Xi was the first synthesizer to push ren learning to new heights in ancient China. Chen Lai’s ontology of ren represents a new development in ren learning by modern scholars.
Keywords: Martin Buber, Confucius’s ren learning, relational philosophy, ontology of ren,three dimensions in one
Martin Buber (1878—1965) was a famous German—Jewish philosopher. He is often regarded as a forerunner of existentialism and one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century.1 Buber is best known for his relational philosophy, romantic theology, and philosophy of dialogue. His thought has a lot in common with Confucius’s ren 仁, which has been variously translated as benevolence, humanity, and human-heartedness. These similarities have drawn researchers’ attention, but no serious study into this subject has yet appeared.
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Martin Buber’s Relational Ontology [Refer to page 34 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Martin Buber’s philosophy finds its most concentrated expression in Ich und Du [I and Thou]. In this book, Buber proposes a relational ontology which is theological and in contradistinction to the Western metaphysical tradition. According to Buber, that which assumes the ontological status is neither material nor spiritual, neither a subject nor an object; what assumes the ontological status is the relation between subject and object. He distinguishes between two primary, almost primordial, words, namely “I—It” and “I—Thou,”which mean respectively the I—It relation and the I—Thou relation. These two kinds of relations disclose two fundamental ways of the subject relating to the object, the I—It relation establishing “the world of experience” (the world to be used) and the I—Thou relation establishing “the world of relation” (the world to be met). “I—It” is a typical subject-centered relation, and “I—Thou” is more authentic and fundamental.
轰轰烈烈的课改一直到现在都没有停下脚步，而信息技术学科正因为本身内容的陈旧而逐渐地被整合，但无论是与其他课程的整合，还是重新确定新的内容从而焕发新的生命力，我们都需要一个正确的方向。国务院印发的《关于新一代人工智能发展规划》正如一盏指明灯，指明了信息技术学科的发展方向，更明确了推广程序教育作为新时代下的学生信息素养培养的核心内容。相信小学信息技术学科一定能在《规划》的指引下重新焕发生命力，而在新时代、新目标培养下的新一代学生更能为我们国家的可持续发展提供持久的动力。
The brilliance of Buber’s philosophy lies in breaking the conventional thought pattern of subject—object dichotomy, replacing entity, a concept originating from Aristotle, with relation, and breaking through the Western metaphysical tradition that ever since Descartes has been characterized by the subject—object dichotomy. Buber contends that the subject established by Descartes’s “Cogito ergo sum ” (I think, therefore I am) is an illusion, and that the existence of the self is actually dependent on the interaction and mutual inf l uence between“I” and “Thou,” so compared with the “cogito ,” this relation is of primary importance.
Buber regards the I—Thou relation as the most basic mode of existence, thus humanizing inanimate objects and holding a position similar to Chinese philosophy. For this reason,Zhang Shiying 张世英 asserted that the I—Thou relation is essentially “an intersubjective attitude of love and reciprocity, or, to borrow the words of Chinese philosophy, an attitude of ‘treating all people as my brothers and all things as my kind.’”2 Zhang Shiying 张世英, “Life and the World Are Twofold: Martin Buber’s I and Thou ” [人生与世界的两重性——布伯《我与你》], Journal of Renmin University of China [中国人民大学学报], no. 3 (2002): 28. In short, the important implication Buber’s philosophy has for Confucius’sren learning is that human Dasein is relational. This relational structure opens up opportunities for constructive dialogue between Buber and Confucianism. In fact, Confucius’s ren learning approaches people and the world from the perspective of relationality.
The Three Dimensions of Confucius’s Ren Learning[36]
Scholars throughout the ages have made creative interpretations of Confucius’s account ofren , and thanks to its quality of theoretical openness, it was able to absorb useful elements from foreign cultures and attain new developments. Along the three dimensions pioneered by Confucius, ren learning evolved by its own internal logic into more developed forms.
The ‘Self-Self’ Dimension [36]
The self—self dimension of ren concerns the question of the human mind, or rather that of the human body and mind. In this respect, Confucius’s discussions of ren chief l y revolve around four categories: feeling, will, value, and moral praxis.
First,ren is rooted in feeling, and includes people’s real feelings and emotions.Confucius says, “What does a person devoid of ren have to do with ritual propriety? What does a person devoid of ren have to do with music?” (Analects , 3:3).4 The English translations of the Analects are based on Ni Peimin’s version, with slight modifications. Sacrificial ceremonies,rites and music are formal processes on the surface; however, the foundation of these institutions is humanity’s inner feelings. According to Confucius, without humanity’s real moral feelings, the processes of rites and music are formalized and hence meaningless. As an emotion, ren is, in essence, love, specifically love toward others instead of oneself and love manifested in the daily functioning of human relations. In this connection, Confucius instructs, “My young fellows: when at home, be filial, and when going out, be respectful to elders. Be earnest and trustworthy, love the multitude broadly, and seek close association with those who are ren ” (1:6). It can be seen that Confucius’s ren learning always starts from people’s natural feelings and harmonizes with the ethical rules of society, constituting a unity of internal feelings and external ethics. So from the very beginning, ren is related to the living conditions of human Dasein; it is not merely an abstract concept formulated by reason.
Second,ren inherently entails the human will. Concerning this point, there are three implications. To begin with, ren arises from the human will. Confucius says, “I want to be ren ,and there comes ren ” (7:30). A person’s wanting to be ren is a prerequisite for the coming of ren ,so it can be said that ren is motivated by a desire, by the human will. Confucius also says, “Having aspired after ren , you will be free from mean conduct” (4:4). If people truly aspire after ren , they can eliminate evil in themselves. People’s aspiration or will is still the crux of the matter, so the will is an inherent part ofren . Furthermore, ren is a moral will. As a moral will, ren lays down the emotional basis for making reasonable choices. To stress the will of ren , Confucius says, “The three armies may be deprived of their commander, but even a common man cannot be deprived of his will” (9:26); “Superior men do not, even for the space of a single meal, go against ren . In moments of haste, they are with it. In times of distress, they are with it” (4:5). As is demonstrated by the quotes above, ren as a moral will is thorough and absolute, leaving no room for moral relativism. Finally, as a moral will, ren is completely free. Confucius does not speak explicitly of free will, but some of his remarks seem to imply this idea. For example, “To be ren is dependent on oneself. How can it be dependent on others?” (12:1). An action that is ren is based on a person’s free choice, independent of other people and external factors.
Third,ren embodies the value of life. In the view of Confucius, ren results from rational choice and represents the value of life, so it is higher than life. Confucius says, “People with lofty ideals will never seek to live at the expense of ren . Rather, they might sacrifice their lives to accomplish ren ” (15:9). Confucius thinks that as the highest value, ren cannot be compromised. He says,
When positioning yourself, be respectful; when conducting business, be reverent; in treating others, be wholeheartedly devoted. (13:19)
As the highest standard of human action, ren is the culmination and condensed form of human reason. For this, it is argued that Confucius’s ren learning,Turns propriety and rituals from external norms and constraints into internal requirements of humanity, elevates originally rigid rules and regulations into selfconscious ideas of life, and transforms something religious and mysterious into the constancy of human feelings in everyday life, unifying ethical rules and psychological desires into an organic whole.5 Li Zehou 李泽厚, History of Ancient Chinese Thought [中国古代思想史论] (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company,2008), 15.
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Although the ren of rational nature is acquired, it plays a very significant role.
The self—Heaven and Earth dimension of ren also has a transcendent and religious quality. The sublimity of ren lies in its being a constant reminder of the ontological reality that makes humanity truly human. “It goes on just like this, not ceasing day or night” (9:17).This going-on symbolizes the steadfastness of Confucianism in seeking the meaning of life and pursuing ultimate concerns. To a certain extent, this explains how Confucianism plays the role of religion. In sum, appreciating the harmony of humanity and nature, of humanity and Heaven, and of humanity and the cosmos, seeking to achieve the unity of Heaven and humanity, these are the basic attitudes Confucianism holds toward the external world.
Wholehearted devotion and reciprocity. (4:15)
I have never seen a person who loves ren , or one who loathes the contrary to it. One who loves ren places nothing above it. One who loathes the contrary to it would never let anything contrary to it attach to his person. Is anyone able, for a single day, to make efforts at ren ? I have never seen a person whose strength would be insufficient. There might be such people, but I have yet to see any. (4:6)
The “self—Heaven and Earth” dimension of ren mainly deals with the relation between humanity and nature, or between humanity and the cosmos. This part is often viewed as the Confucian ontology and cosmology. Ontologically, ren as the substance pertains to the question of “inherent nature and the Way of Heaven” in Confucian philosophy. Although Confucius was the first to speak of the philosophy of mind and inherent nature, his remarks are few. There is only one sentence directly related to the topic, which says: “By nature,humans are similar; through habitual conduct, they diverge widely” (17:2), words that are open to various interpretations. Confucius’s disciple Zigong 子贡 (520—456 BCE) said,“The Master’s manifestation of culture is something that may be heard. His discourses about the inherent nature [of human beings or things] and the Way of Heaven, however,are things that cannot be heard” (5:13). Although Confucius’s words on inherent nature and the Way of Heaven are meager and fragmentary, they point to the metaphysical realm in Confucianism. It was on this basis that later generations of Confucians gave ren an ontological development. In Neo-Confucianism, the Way of ren means not only ethical guidance for the individual as well as groups of individuals, but also the fundamental principle ensuring that all things go smoothly in the world. It is both the basic moral law and the life-giving principle of transformation and nourishment. Neo-Confucians generally believed that there is a certain consistency between the Way of Heaven and human nature.That is, human nature is uplifted to become a kind of moral reason that is also the Way of Heaven; conversely, the Way of Heaven descends to become part of human nature before being manifested in human conduct as the Way of humanity. In this regard, Guo Qiyong郭齐勇 said,
Remarks like these are many in the Analects, and they can be summarized into one phrase:“restrain oneself and return to ritual propriety.” When it comes to Neo-Confucianism,the praxis of ren means gongfu, or spending time and effort in cultivating oneself. The commitment to gongfu not only paves the way to achieving ren but also constitutes the goal of ren in and of itself. With one’s gongfu, there comes a higher sphere of life. Confucius does not speak explicitly of this higher life, but merely refers to a “joy of Confucius and Yan Hui.”Confucius says, “With only coarse food to eat, plain water to drink, and my bended arms for a pillow, joy can be found in the midst of these. Wealth and prestige acquired in inappropriate ways are no more than floating clouds to me” (7:16). This Confucian joy originally only meant being contented with poverty and finding joy in the Way, but with the Neo-Confucian interpretation, it was usually understood as a lofty spiritual plane. In sum, ren is not merely some abstract value above people’s quotidian existence; it is attainable by their constant selfcultivation in performing common tasks. Understood from the perspective of gongfu, an important function of ren is to unite the physical a nd the metaphysical realms. In the Western philosophical tradition, the physical a nd the metaphysical are usually separated; Chinese philosophy however strives for their fusion, as in the claim that “it is not divorced from daily regular activity, yet it goes directly to that which was before the heavens.”6 Wang Shouren 王守仁, “Departure from Disc iples” [别诸生], in vol. 20 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王阳明全集], eds. Wu Guang 吴光 et al. (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2011), 872. The unique perspective of gongfu is what allows Chinese philosophy to be both physical and metaphysical.
The ‘Self-Other’ Dimension [38]
The self—other dimension of ren mainly deals with the relation between self and others,and between human beings and society. Confucius approached this issue mainly from the perspective of social morality. According to Confucius, ren is the general principle addressing all kinds of social relations. Ethically, ren means loving people, as in, “A benevolent (ren) man loves people” (Mencius, 4B:28), and “love the multitude broadly,and seek close association with those who are ren” (Analects, 1:6). A sense of responsibility for oneself naturally leads to a sense of responsibility for others. Confucius believed that all kinds of social norms conforming to ren can be developed from the principle of loving people; therefore, the ideal society is one of love and benevolence. It should be noted that Confucius’s love was graded love, which is different from the Neo-Confucian love that regarded “the myriad things as one body.” In the society envisioned by Confucius, people love each other and live together harmoniously. Human society is a community within which members, though vastly different from each other, are interconnected and have a shared future.7 Ma Jun 马俊, “Exploring the Four Essentials of Mencius’s Kingl y Way Governance and Their Universal Significance”[孟子 王道政治四要素及其普世意义初探], Journal of Zhengzhou University of Light Industry (Social Science Edition) [郑州轻工业学院学报（社会科学版）], no. 2 (2019): 26—34. In addition, Confucius applied the principle of ren to his political theory.However, he mainly talked about ren in terms of inner sageliness; as for outer kingliness,Confucius talked a lot about dezheng 德政 or virtuous government, but did not propose the concept of renzheng 仁政 or benevolent government.
室间隔缺损是儿科常见先天性心脏病，约20%，其中缺损口径小、分流量少等症状较轻者一般临床症状并不典型，症状严重者会出现呼吸窘迫和左心衰竭等症状，由于左心室与右心室存在压差，左向右分流时可导致肺血多引发充血性心力衰竭、肺动脉高压等症状，给患儿的生命安全带来了极大的威胁[1-2]。研究表明，在室间隔缺损并发症出现之前予以针对性的措施进行干预，是可以痊愈的，其中治疗方式选择至关重要[3-4]。本研究探讨介入治疗、外科手术在室间隔缺损患儿的应用价值，现报道如下。
The ‘Self-Heaven and Earth’ Dimension [38]
To aspire after the Way, hold firm to virtue, lean upon ren, and wander in the arts. (7:6)
1.2 方法 高危妊娠的定义: 根据京卫老妇幼字〔2014〕6 号文件《北京市卫生计生委关于规范高危孕产妇转会诊工作的通知》，此文件对包括妊娠期合并症与并发症在内所有孕产妇高危因素进行了明确细致的分类，其中严重高危必须转诊至区级抢救中心或三级助产机构进行产前保健及分娩，极严重高危必须转诊至市级抢救中心进行产前保健及分娩。一般高危包括年龄≥35岁，但由于本研究分析孕妇年龄对不同高危因素发生的影响，因此本研究中所指一般高危因素不包含高龄。
Confucius combines the awe of the transcendent Heaven and the sense of moral law within, thus transforming religiousness into inherent morality. Humanity is endowed with inherent goodness by Heaven, and Heaven descends to become part of human nature. Heaven is not only to be worshiped by people and the source of all value, but is also at the same time accessible to people. Following their inherent goodness and engaging in ceaseless moral cultivation, people can reach up to the state of Heaven internally. This is called “to study that which is below in order to reach that which is above.” Basically, this is Confucius’s idea of “inherent nature and the Way of Heaven.”8 Guo Qiyong 郭齐勇, The Spirit of Confucianism [中国儒学之精神] (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2009), 254.
更小的像素尺寸通常会引入更多噪点，而更大的像素尺寸能够保证更好的暗光表现，在相同的ISO值下也能够保证更好的画质。因为全画幅传感器的尺寸更大，所以单个像素的尺寸也能够做得更大。
Fourth,ren entails praxis. Confucius speaks of many ways to put ren into practice,for example,
In terms of the three dimensions above, ren can be seen as centered on humanity. In pre-Qin classics such as the Book of Rites and the Mencius, there is a saying: “To be ren is to be human (仁者，人也).” This is probably an explanation of the original meaning of the word ren. At the same time, Confucius approaches the issues of body and mind, of self and others, and of humans and the world mainly from the perspective of relationality, so Confucius’s ren learning can be deemed a relational philosophy. The three dimensions of Confucius’s ren are of great importance. They give a sketch of the basic orientation and theoretical model of the spirit of Chinese culture, and establish the ultimate concern of Eastern civilization as distinct from that of Western civilization. The Neo-Confucian theory of inherent nature and principle in the Song (960—1279) and Ming (1368—1644) dynasties did not go beyond these three dimensions.
The History of Ren Learning and Its Development in Modern Times [39]
Ren is at the core of Confucius’s thought.3 Others believe li , or ritual propriety, is at the center of Confucius’s thought. A leading exponent of this view is Herbert Fingarette. For details, see Confucius: The Secular as Sacred (New York: Harper and Row, 1972). Both ren andli are central concepts. Ren is central to Confucius’s moral philosophy, and mainly deals with inner sageliness;li plays a central role in the establishment of ethical and political order, and mainly deals with outer kingliness. However,inner sageliness and outer kingliness overlap in what they denote, and are as inseparable as the two sides of a coin.Comparatively speaking, ren is the internal realization of social ethics, as Confucius says, “Ren is to restrain oneself and return to ritual propriety,” so ren is more fundamental than li .Confucius’sren learning includes three dimensions:“self—self,” “self—other,” and “self—Heaven and Earth.” Self—self addresses the relation between humanity and itself, self—other addresses the relation between the self and others, and self—Heaven and Earth addresses the relation between humanity and the cosmos.
First, there is development in the self—self dimension. Confucius’s approach to ren in terms of feeling has been inherited and expanded. In this respect, Mencius played a crucial role, with his “feeling of commiseration” or “mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others” as the basic principle of human nature. Pre-Qin Confucianism not only granted legitimacy to people’s natural feelings, but also established feelings as the foundation for the transcendence of humanity and all kinds of rational laws and regulations. However,later Confucianism did not follow this approach. In the Song and Ming dynasties, Neo-Confucianism advocated “preserving heavenly principle and extinguishing human desires,” with human feeling utterly marginalized in morality. Undoubtedly, this led to a brutal suppression of innate human characteristics. Unreasonable as it was as a solution,this sadistic tendency did not last long, and the suppressed emotions fervently sought an outlet. It was superseded by Wang Yangming’s 王阳明 (1472—1528) followers (especially the Taizhou school), who advocated the liberation of human nature and promoted human feeling to unparalleled heights of importance. In modern times, Chinese philosophers have attached more importance to feelings. Both Kang Youwei 康有为 (1858—1927) and Tan Sitong 谭嗣同 (1865—1898) spoke highly of feelings, while Li Zehou 李泽厚 was the first to make emotion the ontological substance in his philosophy.
Second, the self—other dimension developed chiefly along the lines of ethics and politics. The development in ethics has been more significant than that in politics. Mencius and Xunzi combined the moral ideal of ren with Confucius’s ideas of loving people and rule by virtue. They proposed theories of benevolent government, people as the basis, and the kingly Way, laying the foundation for Confucian political theory and advancing Confucius’sren learning along the path of outer kingliness. After Mencius and Xunzi, there were few breakthroughs. In the New Culture Movement (1919), Confucianism was denounced and rejected, and after that Contemporary New Confucians ref l ected critically upon the decline of Confucianism and put forward insightful theories such as the “self-negation of moral knowing,” “Confucian socialism,” “Confucian constitution,” and the “all-under-Heaven system,” thus enhancing the development of this dimension.
Third, the self—Heaven and Earth dimension ofren developed from universal values,through the moral subject, to the substance of the cosmos. Zhang Zai 张载 (1020—1077)in his Western Inscription [西铭] said, “What fills the space between Heaven and Earth, I consider as my body; what directs Heaven and Earth, I consider as my inherent nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all creatures are my companions.”9 Zhang Zai 张载, vol. 17 of Correcting Youthful Ignorance [正蒙], in Works of Zhang Zai [张载集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1978), 62. Here, Mozi’s thought of universal love is incorporated into the Confucian ren , and the previous notion of graded love is replaced by the highest form of thought that “ren means regarding Heaven,Earth, and the myriad things as one body.”10 Cheng Yi 程颐 and Cheng Hao 程颢, part 1 of vol. 2 in Surviving Books of the Cheng Brothers [河南程氏遗书], in Works of the Cheng Brothers [二程集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981), 15. Thus the person who is ren lives on a lofty plane is equal with Heaven and Earth, and assists in the transformation and nourishment of the world. Cheng Hao 程颢 (1032—1085) was the first to speak of ren as substance,11 Chen Lai 陈来, An Ontology of Ren Learning [仁学本体论] (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2014), 169. and to clarify the way to realize ren through sincerity and reverence. His theory that “ren means becoming an integral whole with things”12 Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao, Surviving Books of the Cheng Brothers , 16. established the unity of all things as the core metaphysical proposition in Confucianism. Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130—1200) interpreted ren as the creation of life, and considered ren to be “the heart of Heaven and Earth in ceaseless creation.”13 Li Jingde 黎靖德, ed., Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi [朱子语类], vol. 53 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1988), 1298. As a consequence, ren became the living, unrestrained, and all-inclusive substance of the cosmos, transcending abstract moral categories and taking on cosmogonic significance, establishing the unique ren learning view of the cosmos: humans and Heaven are one and the same body.
Generally speaking, ren learning found its most important development in Zhu Xi.Since the dawn of the modern age, many scholars have tried to explore the theoretical implications of ren , seeing it as the most important Eastern wisdom to rebuild the cultural tradition, to resolve the loss of value in modernity, and even to resolve the conflicts of civilizations and religions in the world. From Kang Youwei’s conception of “ren -substance,”Tang Junyi’s 唐君毅 (1909—1978) idea of “one root,” Mou Zhongjian’s 牟钟鉴 new ren learning, to Chen Lai’s 陈来 recent ontology of ren learning, the concept of ren has become central to the construction of Chinese philosophy in modern times. In particular, Chen Lai has traced the development of ren learning, and constructed an ontology of ren learning, a philosophical system including cosmology, ontology, ethics and other fields, thereby givingren learning a mature and complete form.
Bibliography of Cited Translations
左达面带微笑地望着徐艺，调侃道：“知道你为什么又输了吗？因为你太想赢了，而你出手又太慢了。如果我是你，就放弃。今天你是不会赢我的，你的照片给我带来了好运。”
Ni, Peimin, trans. Understanding the Analects of Confucius: A New Translation of Lunyu with Annotations . Albany: State University of New York Press, 2017.
全面深化改革的大背景下，必须加强企业前期和改革后的特点分析，结合企业改革特点、要求等进行问题的深度分析，保证企业审计工作的与时俱进。如考虑到审计工作具有以风险为导向的特点，可借助大数据技术等进行数据关系的分析，具有效率高、精度准、风险低的优势，同时可延伸审计工作到未曾涉及的领域，达到防范风险的目的。还可达到有效整合经营绩效、社会责任、资源环境的目的，最大程度地完成对国企运营的合理规划。
❋ Ma Jun is a doctoral student of philosophy at Renmin University of China. E-mail: knowingyourself@163.com
❋ Hou Jian is a teacher in the School of Foreign Languages at Henan University.
Translated by Hou Jian ❋
标签：马丁·布伯论文; 孔子仁学论文; 关系哲学论文; 仁学本体论论文; 三维一体论文; 中国人民大学哲学院论文; School of Foreign Languages at Henan University论文;